Footnotes

Footnotes, usage

Use in-text footnotes (displayed at the bottom of the page) when citing a reference or when providing an explanatory note that is relevant but not essential to the argument.

Footnotes, endnotes, or bibliography?

If there are multiple or lengthy in-text notes, consider using endnotes (displayed in a “Notes” section at the end of the section or chapter or at the end of the document) or a bibliography (References section in the back matter) instead. A document with extensive footnotes often indicates that the document is poorly designed.

In documents with few citations, footnotes can be used in place of a bibliography for citing a publication or an unpublished work. However, a bibliography is preferred if there are frequent or multiple citations in the document. But ensure that only one method is used in the same document. For information about the format of a citation footnote or endnote, follow the guidelines for documentary notes in Bibliographies and citations.

Numbering footnotes

Always use a numerical superscript footnote identifier—not alphabetical characters or symbols. Footnotes must be numbered sequentially, starting at 1 and continuing through to the end of the document. In large documents, restart the numbering at the beginning of each chapter.

Placement of footnote identifiers

Place end-of-sentence footnote identifiers after the period, like this.¹ Otherwise, the reference is placed before punctuation marks and immediately following the word or phrase that is being explained², like this.

Multiple footnote identifiers

Separate multiple footnote identifiers with commas, like this.^3,4 Also consider combining into a single footnote.

Referring to footnotes

When referring to a footnote from another page, write “see note 12” or similar. Do not include the page number. If footnotes are renumbered in each chapter, write “see note 12 in Chapter 3” or “see note 12 in this chapter” or similar. See Cross-references for the correct format of these references.

Footnotes in headings

Do not place footnotes in headings. If it is necessary to refer to an entire section, place a note in the text at the end of that section.

Table notes

Use alphabetical identifiers in table notes (displayed at the end of the table) to ensure that they are not confused with in-text footnotes.